Bamboozled: Black People and White Man Essay

In 2000, Spike Lee wrote and directed the film Bamboozled. When discussing his satirical film, Spike Lee claimed, â€Å"I want people to think about the power of images, not just in terms of race, but how imagery is used and what sort of social impact it has – how it influences how we talk, how we think, how we view one another[. . . ]how film and television have historically[. . . ]produced and perpetuated distorted images. † Spike Lee certainly conveyed this message in Bamboozled. Images are powerful and carry massive social impact. They should never be misrepresented. Are all African Americans either lazy or dim-witted or â€Å"happy servants†, always ready and willing to please the White Man? The short answer is, no. However, throughout the 1800s and early 1900s, many people believed this. The ultimate question is, why? As explained in the film Ethnic Notions, this false perception grew and grew, even past the time of slavery, due to images. Derogatory images of African Americans as â€Å"happy servants† or â€Å"savages,† were everywhere; they were published in children’s books and slapped on cans of food to be used as a marketing tool. People bought into this perception of African Americans, as they became acclimatized to it. Today, our society likes to believe that times have changed and there is no longer an issue of race or false perception of African Americans in the media. However, Spike Lee argues, â€Å"A new â€Å"phenomenon† has emerged in film in recent years, in which an African-American character is imbued with special powers, filmmaker Spike Lee told a student audience ? This new image is just a reincarnation of â€Å"the same old† stereotype or caricature of African Americans ? Lee cited four recent films in which there is a â€Å"magical, mystical Negro† character ? in â€Å"The Legend of Bagger Vance,† a black man â€Å"with all these powers,† teaches a young white male ? how to golf like a champion ? â€Å"How is it that black people have these powers but they use them for the benefit of white people? † Spike Lee seems to be under the impression that African Americans are still misrepresented in the media. They have only improved their ability to mask the fact. False image is still there, but it is subtle. His film Bamboozled ripped viewers’ eyes wide open. The film explored and demonstrated two images of African Americans. The first image, is the Black Man who is just like the White Man or the Asian Man or the Middle-Eastern Man; a man who can be rich and successful like Pierre Delacroix in Bamboozled; a man who can be poor and when without money will do almost anything for it like Manray and Womack. However, when Pierre Delacroix pitched television shows about a Black Man living in an upper-middle-class white, suburban neighborhood, his superior, Thomas Dunwitty turned them down, â€Å"they definitely don’t want to see dignified black people [on television]. † However, the network would allow Pierre Delacroix to create a show which blatantly degrades African Americans; a show which goes back to the 1900s, to the time of black face and minstrel shows; a time when black people were considered subhuman. This is where Spike Lee demonstrates the other image of the African American; an image that the media has gently forced down viewer’s throats. Spike Lee, however, did not do so gently. The fictional television show in Bamboozled, â€Å"Mantan’s New Millennium Minstrel Show†, starred African Americans in â€Å"black face† acting like buffoons. It might as well have been an authentic minstrel show in the 1900s. There was dancing and singing. The two main characters hid from the White Man in a chicken coup, saying â€Å"ain’t nobody in here but us chickens! â€Å"4 The creator, Pierre Delacroix’s initial intention with this show was not to degrade his own race. It was to â€Å"break the stereotypes. â€Å"5 He figured the nation would be shocked and outraged! Instead they ate it up. The studio audience dressed in black face. Children trick-or-treated in black face. It was the latest craze of the nation. Black face is an act which digs back to a time of slavery, a time where African Americans were considered inferior. It was now socially acceptable to publicly highlight a moment in history that pained African Americans. People figured it’s on TV, it’s OK! The black man was degraded, as he has always been, but in Bamboozled no mercy was spared. Spike Lee used the film in a variety of ways. He attacked today’s media and the way in which it portrays African Americans. He explored the wide scope of African American’s lives, which is no different than the lives of any other race. He demonstrated the consequences of greed and sacrificing one’s dignity. Furthermore, he exposed society for what it really is: mindless. The majority of a population does not question the media. Instead it swallows images whole, even if those images are as false and misleading as a painted black face.

Iron Crowned Chapter 18

It really felt like that, like I was killing a living thing. And in a way, I was. I was destroying the land's connection to Katrice. The land and its monarch are one. Kind of an esoteric concept †¦ but, well, the truth. I'd certainly felt it in the Thorn Land. It was why I couldn't ever stay away from that kingdom for very long. It called to me. It was part of me. And so, I was essentially cutting a living thing in two. White-hot power burned through me as I did, the crown's magic connecting with my own and pouring into the dirt below. I had little sense of my surroundings, save Katrice screaming. Below me, in a spiritual sort of way, I could feel the land resisting at first. It didn't want to break its ties. In the end, it had no choice. The crown's magic was too strong. Seconds, minutes, hours †¦ I don't know how long it took, probably hardly any time at all. But suddenly, it was done. The crown's power faded from me, and the land lay there open and unclaimed. Raw and wounded. As the magic's haze wore off, the rest of the world slowly shifted back into focus for me. I stared around at the gaping faces and at Katrice, huddled and sobbing. I thought she'd aged before, but it was nothing compared to now. Being ripped from the land had devastated her. Her dark hair was almost all gray now, her face gaunt and lined. And all around †¦ all around, the land was restless. I could feel its energy, calling out †¦ reaching out †¦ yearning for a new master. Hardly any of the people gathered showed any recognition of this. They were still watching the drama of me and Katrice. A few spectators had puzzled looks on their faces, as though they too could hear the land. It was because they were powerful enough to take it, I realized. The land was already seeking those who possessed the strength to join with it, and looking up, I saw from Cassius's face that he could sense that. Katrice's son hadn't had the power to claim a kingdom, but her nephew did. So, for my next impulsive act of the day, I stuck my free hand into the ground. Just like the last time, soil that started off hard and ungiving soon grew soft and warm. My hand sank into the earth, and I was welcomed, as though someone were clasping my hand in return. Warmth filled my body, a comforting warmth very different from the crown's searing heat. I closed my eyes, striving to stay with that connection, to show I was worthy. Part of me was already given over to the Thorn Land. I had to fight to claim this land as well. Then, I felt it†¦. I felt the land accept me. And as it did, the ground began to shake. At first, I thought it was just some aftereffect of the magic, but then I remembered what had happened when the Thorn Land had bound itself to me. The land took on the form that spoke to my soul, that was natural and right to me. Aeson's former kingdom had shaped itself into the Sonora Desert, the land of my birth. The Rowan Land was trying to do the same thing. No, no! Not again. A semi-tropical kingdom transforming into a desert had wreaked havoc on its residents. We'd faced starvation, drought, poverty†¦. It was only recently that the kingdom had gotten on its feet again, becoming prosperous and self-sustaining. I wouldn't go through that again. Frantically, I tried to think of some other form. But what? I hardly ever left the southwestern United States. A quick image of the Catalina mountains flashed into my mind, the slopes snowy and pine-covered like the day Kiyo and I had fought the demon. I could feel the land start to grip that picture, and I yanked it away. This kingdom had some small mountains, but that was a tiny percentage of its terrain. I couldn't turn this place into Switzerland or Nepal. Stay the same, stay the same, I begged the land. For the sake of its occupants, I needed the landscape to remain unchanged. It was difficult, though. The land wanted to bond to me, to what was ingrained within my soul. Thinking back to the journey here, I tried to picture the rows and rows of cherry trees along the road. I remembered the sun shining through other deciduous trees and flowers growing in clusters. I thought about the stretch of rowan trees. Stay the same, stay the same. Gradually, the earth around me began to slow its shaking and finally stop – except for one spot. Not far from where I rested my hand, the ground cracked open and leaves and branches burst through. I scurried back, watching in as much awe as I had the first time a magical tree burst forth, growing and unfurling its leaves to full-size in seconds. I held my breath, wondering what it would be, this tree that dictated my new kingdom's nature. It was †¦ a rowan tree. I wasn't the only one who thought this was weird. â€Å"Didn't you claim it?† asked Jasmine, puzzled. I rose to my feet beside her, brushing dust off of my jeans. â€Å"I †¦Ã¢â‚¬  Had I? That was a rowan tree, making this – by all Otherworldly reasoning – the Rowan Land. Which is what it had been already. Maybe it hadn't worked. Maybe the crown hadn't done what I expected it to. Maybe Katrice had won it back somehow. But, no. There it was. I felt it. The land. The earth. The rocks. Every leaf and flower. The scents, the colors †¦ they were all sharper and more intense. If I opened myself up, I could feel every single piece of this land. It hummed. It buzzed. The energy was dizzying, and I forced myself to shut it out for a moment. â€Å"No,† I told Jasmine, wonderingly. â€Å"It's mine.† I stared at the rowan tree, more perfect than any real one could be, its orange-colored berries bright against green leaves swaying in the breeze. I reached out and stroked one of the leaves, vaguely aware of Katrice still sobbing. A tingle of power ran through me. â€Å"It's still the Rowan Land †¦ except, it's my Rowan Land.† Things were a little awkward after that. The soldiers were no longer trying to imprison me, but they also weren't ready to jump at my every order. My companions were of little use. Imanuelle, per her nature, was content to sit back and watch the mess I'd stumbled into. Kiyo wore a disapproving look on his face, and I feared I'd have a lecture coming later. Jasmine still seemed to be in shock. The only time she came to life was when I debated what to do with Katrice and Cassius. Unsurprisingly, Jasmine's suggestion was to kill them. â€Å"Confine them to her rooms,† I ordered, hoping someone would obey me. â€Å"Guard them with †¦Ã¢â‚¬  I was kind of at a loss. Theoretically, gentry knew how this worked. Whoever controlled the land ruled, but I wasn't entirely sure the guards around here would be so keen about imprisoning the woman who had ruled them ten minutes ago. Volusian, I thought. Now that I was in control, I could summon him without fear. Then, I realized I needed him for more important things. I looked pleadingly at Kiyo, needing no words. He nodded. â€Å"I'll watch them.† He turned abruptly, urging the former royalty inside with a couple of guards who'd decided to get on board with me right away. Kiyo being on guard served two purposes. I could trust him to do a good job – and, the longer he did, the longer I was safe from his disapproval. I then spoke the words to bring Volusian to me, the sight of him further frightening those who already watched me with terror. I'd let the storm dissipate, but darkness still seemed to wrap around my minion as his red eyes assessed me, the Iron Crown, and the tree. â€Å"Unexpected,† he said. â€Å"Go to Rurik,† I told him. â€Å"Explain what happened and have him bring an occupying force here immediately.† I didn't know what that meant exactly, but I did know military control took precedence here if we were going to secure the land. Rurik would know what to do. Governing would come later. â€Å"And then †¦Ã¢â‚¬  Now I hesitated. â€Å"Have Shaya contact Dorian about what happened. Then return to me.† Volusian paused, waiting for anything else I might add. When nothing more came, he vanished, and the sun seemed to shine a little brighter. It was all a waiting game now, and I glanced around at the Rowan Land's still-stunned residents. â€Å"Well †¦ that's it. Carry on as usual. Guard the gates. No one leaves. And you †¦ go get your soup or †¦ whatever you're eating.† That was for the civilians. When no one moved, I hardened my expression and repeated my orders more loudly. Fear flashed across the Rowan citizens' faces, and they sprang into action. This inner courtyard was huge, and I spotted an unoccupied spot near some carts that must have delivered supplies earlier. I walked over to them, Jasmine following, and sat on the ground. It was a weird spot for a queen, I supposed, but I wanted to rest while waiting for Rurik. Plus, it still let me keep an eye on this delicate and dangerous situation. The bulk of the guards were out here, and I didn't think mutiny was out of the question yet. People were moving after my commands, but it was mostly to gather in anxious clusters and discuss what had happened. Jasmine sighed and leaned her head back against the wall. â€Å"I want to go home,† she said. â€Å"We will. As soon as Rurik gets here, we'll head back to the castle and let him deal with this.† â€Å"No.† Her voice was small. â€Å"My other home. The human world.† I turned to her in astonishment, dragging my gaze from some peasants who were begging the guards to let them out. â€Å"What? But you hate that world. You always said this is where you fit in.† â€Å"It is,† she agreed. â€Å"But I just want †¦ I want to get away from all this for a little while. From magic. And castles. And †¦ whatever. I want to watch TV. I maybe want to see Wil. I want to charge my iPod. And my playlist doesn't suck.† I couldn't help a laugh. â€Å"I kind of want all those things too. We'll go soon. We'll †¦ we'll cut those chains. I-I'm sorry I don't have the key with me.† She shrugged. â€Å"It's fine.† â€Å"Kiyo's going to be upset about all this,† I murmured, surprised to be confiding in her. â€Å"You did the right thing,† Jasmine said. â€Å"I mean, aside from not killing Katrice and Cassius. But you can still do that.† Any residual smile left on my lips vanished. â€Å"Cassius †¦Ã¢â‚¬  â€Å"They were lying,† she said bluntly. â€Å"He didn't do anything.† â€Å"Jasmine †¦Ã¢â‚¬  â€Å"I'm serious.† She looked at me, her blue-gray gaze level and steady. â€Å"He talked a lot of talk when he came to see me †¦ touched me a little. But that was it. I think they just wanted to scare me.† She didn't elaborate on the touching. I didn't ask. I was just relieved she hadn't gone through what I had. â€Å"I'm sorry,† I told her. â€Å"I'm sorry I didn't protect you better.† Now she smiled. â€Å"You did fine. And hey, you ended the war, right? You won.† I turned away, staring off into space. â€Å"I guess I did.† We didn't talk much after that. I was tired, exhausted from all the magic. Apparently, using an ancient, powerful artifact wasn't as easy as it seemed. Neither was proving your dominance over a large piece of land. I'd felt wiped out last time but had gotten out of the Thorn Land as quickly as possible. Now, sitting here, I was stuck in the Rowan Land, still acutely aware of its every sensation. That intensity would fade, just as it had with the Thorn Land, but for now, it was like a hammer banging inside my head, demanding attention. I practically flew to the gate when Rurik arrived. Once admitted, he and the force behind him paused. Studying the situation, he had a reaction similar to Volusian's. â€Å"Really?† â€Å"Things happened kind of fast,† I admitted. â€Å"It was well done. Possessing this land was a much better idea than simply defeating Katrice in battle.† I scowled. â€Å"Well, can you possess it for now?† He grinned. â€Å"Gladly.† Turning from me, he fixed a hard gaze on those gathered. â€Å"You're all now subjects of Queen Eugenie, daughter of Tirigan Storm King,† he barked. â€Å"Kneel.† I looked on imperiously as they obeyed. I knew this was necessary to establish our control. No weakness, no hesitation. We were conquerors. I'd long since taken off the Iron Crown but wished I'd brought my normal one of authority. Oh, well. It wasn't like I could've foreseen this when packing. Everyone in the keep fell to their knees, heads bowed. We let them stay like that for several seconds while my stomach sank. Finally, they were allowed to rise, and Rurik kicked into full martial law mode, demanding an assessment of all soldiers and issuing rules for servants and refugees. He had a few tasks for me – more actions that made me seem queenly – before finally declaring I could leave. â€Å"I'll sort out the immediate problems,† he told me in a low voice. My own soldiers were now out and about, establishing order. â€Å"We'll lock this place down, start scouting the immediate area, sifting out those who can be trusted.† He paused eloquently. â€Å"I'll probably have to throw a large part of their military into the dungeon.† â€Å"Do what you have to do,† I said. I had a feeling he'd eventually want to talk executions but was holding back for now. I imagined I looked as tired as I felt. â€Å"And you simply want to imprison the former queen for now?† he asked. â€Å"For now.† Jasmine scoffed beside me, and Rurik's expression showed he shared her opinion. â€Å"Well, don't stay away long,† he said. â€Å"You need to make your presence felt. And you need to connect with the land.† â€Å"I know, I know,† I grumbled. I'd avoided the Thorn Land before, but it had kept calling me back. â€Å"I know how this works.† He arched an eyebrow, that sardonic smile of his returning. â€Å"Do you? Do you know what's happened?† I threw my hands up, gesturing around. â€Å"I got stuck with another kingdom.† â€Å"Do you know how many other monarchs control more than one kingdom?† I shook my head, presuming whoever did must live far from me. â€Å"No one,† said Rurik. â€Å"I †¦ What? No.† Dorian had mentioned conquering more than one land, making me think it must happen now and then. The Iron Crown's purpose suggested as much. â€Å"There must be someone else.† â€Å"No one,† Rurik repeated. â€Å"You're the only one. The only one in ages †¦ well, except for Storm King.† The world swayed around me again. I once more just wanted to go somewhere and lie down. My reaction brought a bigger smile to Rurik's face, but I swore there was a little sympathy in his eyes too. â€Å"Congratulations,† he said. â€Å"Congratulations, Eugenie – Queen of Rowan and Thorn.†

Ap World Unit 4 Review

PART II, UNIT IV:1750-1914 The era between 1750 and 1914 C. E. was one of clear Europeanhegemony. In the previous era (1450 to 1750 C. E. ), Europeans hadtilted the balance of world power away from Asia, where powerfulcivilizations had existed since ancient times. However, despitegrowing European influence based on sea trade and colonization, majorland-based empires in Asia still influenced long-distance trade andshaped political and economic conditions around them. In this era,Europe not only dominated the western hemisphere, as it had in thelast, but it came to control the eastern hemisphere as well. How didthey do it?Part of the answer lies in a set of discoveries andhappenings that together constitute an important â€Å"Marker Event† – theIndustrial Revolution. Another set of philosophical and politicalevents were equally important – the establishment of democracy as amajor element of a new type of political organization – the†nation. † QUE STIONS OF PERIODIZATION Very important characteristics that distinguish 1750-1914 fromprevious eras in world history include: †¢ European dominance of long-distance trade – Whether by â€Å"unequal treaties† or colonization, sea-based trade gave European countries control of all major trade circuits in the world. â€Å"Have† and â€Å"have not† countries created by Industrialization – The Industrial Revolution gave huge economic and political advantages to countries where it occurs over countries that remained primarily agricultural. †¢ Inequalities among regions increase due to imperialism – Industrialized countries set out to form overseas empires, sometimes through colonization and other times by economic and/or political domination. †¢ Political revolutions inspired by democracy and desire for independence – These revolutions continue to the present, but â€Å"seed† revolutions that put new democratic forms o f government in place occurred during this era.The â€Å"nation† emerged as a new type of political organization. We will analyze these important characteristics of the period byexamining these topics: †¢ Changes in global commerce, communications, and technology – Patterns of world trade and contact changed as the Industrial Revolution revolutionized communications and commerce. Distances became shorter as the Suez and Panama Canals cut new channels for travel, and new technology meant that ships were faster than before. Railroads revived land travel. Demographic and environmental changes – Huge numbers of people migrated to the Americas from Europe and Asia, so that population in the western hemisphere grew dramatically. The slave trade ended, and so did forced migrations from Africa to the New World. Industrialization had a huge impact on the environment, as demands for new fuels came about and cities dominated the landscape in industrialized countries. Industrialization also increased the demand for raw materials from less industrialized countries, altering natural landscapes further. Changes in social and gender structures – Serf and slave systems became less common, but the gap between the rich and poor grew in industrialized countries. We will explore the controversy regarding changes in women's roles in response to industrialization. Did women's status improve, or did gender inequality grow? †¢ Political revolutions and independence movements; new political ideas – Absolutism was challenged in many parts of the globe, and democracy took root as a result of economic and social change and Enlightenment philosophies that began in the 17th century. Nations† arose as political entities that inspired nationalism and movements of political reform. †¢ Rise of western dominance – The definition of â€Å"west† expanded to include the United States and Australia, and western dominance reached n ot only economic and political areas, but extended to social, cultural, and artistic realms as well. Although coercive labor systems as such declined during this era,new questions of equality and justice emerged as west came todominate east, and the gap between the rich and poor grew larger,particularly in the most prosperous countries. CHANGES IN GLOBAL COMMERCE, COMMUNICATIONS, ANDTECHNOLOGYBy 1750 international trade and communications were nothing new. During the 1450-1750 era Europeans had set up colonies in theAmericas so that for the first time in world history the western andeastern hemispheres were in constant contact with one another. However, after 1750 the pace of trade picked up dramatically, fed bya series of economic and technological transformations collectivelyknown as the Industrial Revolution. THE INDUSTRIAL REVOLUTION Remember that to be called a Marker Event in world history, adevelopment should qualify in three ways: †¢ It must cross national or cultural b orders, affecting many civilizations. Later changes or developments in history must be at least partially traced to this event or series of events. †¢ It must have impact in other areas. For example, if it is a technological change, it must impact some other major areas, like government, belief systems, social classes, or the economy. Like the Neolithic Revolution that occurred 10,000 years beforeit, the Industrial Revolution qualifies as a Marker Event accordingto all of the above criteria. It brought about such sweeping changesthat it virtually transformed the world, even areas in whichindustrialization did not occur.The concept seems simple &endash;invent and perfect machinery to help make human labor more efficient- but that's part of its importance. The change was so basic that itcould not help but affect all areas of people's lives in every partof the globe. The Industrial Revolution began in England in the late 18thcentury, and spread during the 19th century to Belgium, Germany,Northern France, the United States, and Japan. Almost all areas ofthe world felt the effects of the Industrial Revolution because itdivided the world into â€Å"have† and â€Å"have not† countries, with many ofthe latter being controlled by the former.England's lead in theIndustrial Revolution translated into economic prowess and politicalpower that allowed colonization of other lands, eventually building aworldwide British Empire. WHY BRITAIN? The Industrial Revolution helped England greatly increase itsoutput of manufactured goods by substituting hand labor with machinelabor. Economic growth in Britain was fueled by a number offactors: †¢ An Agricultural Revolution – The Industrial Revolution would not have been possible without a series of improvements in agriculture in England.Beginning in the early1700s, wealthy landowners began to enlarge their farms through enclosure, or fencing or hedging large blocks of land for experiments with new techniq ues of farming. These scientific farmers improved crop rotation methods, which carefully controlled nutrients in the soil. They bred better livestock, and invented new machines, such as Jethro Tull's seed drill that more effectively planted seeds. The larger the farms and the better the production the fewer farmers were needed. Farmers pushed out of their jobs by enclosure either became tenant farmers or they moved to cities.Better nutrition boosted England's population, creating the first necessary component for the Industrial Revolution: labor. †¢ A technological revolution – England also was the first to experience a technological revolution, a series of inventions built on the principles of mass production, mechanization, and interchangeable parts. Josiah Wedgwood developed a mold for pottery that replaced the potters wheel, making mass production of dishes possible. Many experimented with machinery to speed up human labor, and interchangeable parts meant that machin es were more practical and easier to repair. Natural resources – Britain had large and accessible supplies of coal and iron – two of the most important raw materials used to produce the goods for the early Industrial Revolution. Also available was water power to fuel the new machines, harbors for its merchant ships, and rivers for inland transportation. †¢ Economic strength – During the previous era, Britain had already built many of the economic practices and structures necessary for economic expansion, as well as a middle class (the bourgeoisie) that had experience with trading and manufacturing goods.Banks were well established, and they provided loans for businessmen to invest in new machinery and expand their operations. †¢ Political stability – Britain's political development during this period was fairly stable, with no major internal upheavals occurring. Although Britain took part in many wars during the 1700s, none of them took place on British soil, and its citizens did not seriously question the government's authority. By 1750 Parliament's power far exceeded that of the king, and its members passed laws that protected business and helped expansion.NEW INVENTIONS The earliest transformation of the Industrial Revolution wasBritain's textile industry. In 1750 Britain already exported wool,linen, and cotton cloth, and the profits of cloth merchants wereboosted by speeding up the process by which spinners and weavers madecloth. One invention led to another since none were useful if anypart of the process was slower than the others. Some key inventionswere: †¢ The flying shuttle – John Kay's invention carried threads of yarn back and forth when the weaver pulled a handle, greatly ncreasing the weavers' productivity. †¢ The spinning jenny – James Hargreaves' invention allowed one spinner to work eight threads at a time, increasing the output of spinners, allowing them to keep up with the weavers . Hargreaves named the machine for his daughter. †¢ The water frame – Richard Arkwright's invention replaced the hand-driven spinning jenny with one powered by water power, increasing spinning productivity even more. †¢ The spinning mule – In 1779, Samuel Crompton combined features of the spinning jenny and the water frame to produce the spinning mule.It made thread that was stronger, finer, and more consistent than that made by earlier machines. He followed this invention with the power loom that sped up the weaving process to match the new spinners. These machines were bulky and expensive, so spinning and weavingcould no longer be done at home. Wealthy textile merchants set up themachines in factories, and had the workers come to these places to dotheir work. At first the factories were set up near rivers andstreams for water power, but other inventions later made thisunnecessary.Before the late 1700s Britain's demand for cotton wasmet by India, but they in creasingly came to depend on the Americansouth, where plantation production was speeded by Eli Whitney'sinvention of the cotton gin, a machine that efficiently separated thecotton fiber from the seed. By 1810 southern plantations used slavelabor to produce 85 million pounds of cotton, up from 1. 5 million in1790. TRANSPORTATION IMPROVEMENTS Once the textile industry began its exponential growth,transportation of raw materials to factories and manufactured goodsto customers had to be worked out.New inventions in transportationspurred the Industrial Revolution further. A key invention was thesteam engine that was perfected by James Watt in the late 1790s. Although steam power had been used before, Watt invented ways to makeit practical and efficient to use for both water and landtransportation. Perhaps the most revolutionary use of steam energy was therailroad engine, which drove English industry after 1820. The firstlong-distance rail line from the coastal city of Liverpool to inland Manchester was an immediate success upon its completion in 1830, andwithin a few decades, most British cities were connected by rail.Railroads revolutionized life in Britain in several ways: 1) Railroads gave manufacturers a cheap way to transport materialsand finished products. 2) The railroad boom created hundreds of thousands of new jobs forboth railroad workers and miners. 3) The railroad industry spawned new industries and inventions andincreased the productivity of others. For example, agriculturalproducts could be transported farther without spoiling, so farmersbenefited from the railroads. 4) Railroads transported people, allowing them to work in citiesfar away from their homes and travel to resort areas for leisure.THE SPREAD OF THE INDUSTRIAL REVOLUTION The Industrial Revolution occurred only in Britain for about 50years, but it eventually spread to other countries in Europe, theUnited States, Russia, and Japan. British entrepreneurs andgovernment officials forbade the exp ort of machinery, manufacturingtechniques, and skilled workers to other countries but thetechnologies spread by luring British experts with lucrative offers,and even smuggling secrets into other countries. By the mid-19thcentury industrialization had spread to France, Germany, Belgium, andthe United States.The earliest center of industrial production in continental Europewas Belgium, where coal, iron, textile, glass, and armamentsproduction flourished. By 1830 French firms had employed many skilledBritish workers to help establish the textile industry, and railroadlines began to appear across western Europe. Germany was a littlelater in developing industry, mainly because no centralizedgovernment existed there yet, and a great deal of political unrestmade industrialization difficult. However, after the 1840s Germancoal and iron production skyrocketed, and by the 1850s an extensiverail network was under construction.After German politicalunification in 1871, the new empire rivaled En gland in terms ofindustrial production. Industrialization began in the United States by the 1820s, delayeduntil the country had enough laborers and money to invest inbusiness. Both came from Europe, where overpopulation and politicalrevolutions sent immigrants to the United States to seek theirfortunes. The American Civil War (1861-1865) delayed furtherimmigration until the 1870s, but it spurred the need for industrialwar products, all the way from soldiers' uniforms to guns torailroads for troop transport.Once the war was over, cross-countryrailroads were built which allowed more people to claim parts of vastinland America and to reach the west coast. The United States hadabundant natural resources &endash; land, water, coal and iron ore&endash; and after the great wave of immigration from Europe and Asiain the late 19th century &endash; it also had the labor. During the late 1800s, industrialization spread to Russia andJapan, in both cases by government initiatives. In Russia the tsaristgovernment encouraged the construction of railroads to link placeswithin the vast reaches of the empire.The most impressive one wasthe Trans-Siberian line constructed between 1891 and 1904, linkingMoscow to Vladivostock on the Pacific Ocean. The railroads also gaveRussians access to the empire's many coal and iron deposits, and by1900 Russia ranked fourth in the world in steel production. TheJapanese government also pushed industrialization, hiring thousandsof foreign experts to instruct Japanese workers and mangers in thelate 1800s. Railroads were constructed, mines were opened, a bankingsystem was organized, and industries were started that producedships, armaments, silk, cotton, chemicals, and glass.By 1900 Japanwas the most industrialized land in Asia, and was set to become a20th century power. CHANGES IN PATTERNS OF WORLDTRADE Industrialization greatly increased the economic, military, andpolitical strength of the societies that embraced it. By and large,the countries th at benefited from industrialization were the onesthat had the necessary components of land, labor and capital, andoften government support. However, even though many other countriestried to industrialize, few had much success.For example, Indiatried to develop jute and steel industries, but the entrepreneursfailed because they had no government support and little investmentcapital. An international division of labor resulted: people inindustrialized countries produced manufactured products, and peoplein less industrialized countries produced the raw materials necessaryfor that production. Industrial England, for example, needed cotton,so turned to India, Egypt, and the American south to produce it forthem. In many cases this division of labor led to colonization of thenon-industrialized areas.As industrialization increased, more ironand coal were needed, as well as other fibers for the textileindustry, and the British Empire grew rapidly in order to meet thesedemands. Many countries in Latin America, sub-Saharan Africa, south Asia,and southeast Asia became highly dependent on one cash crop – such assugar, cotton, and rubber – giving them the nickname of â€Å"BananaRepublics. † Such economies were very vulnerable to any change in theinternational market. Foreign investors owned and controlled theplantations that produced these crops, and most of the profits wentto them.Very little of the profits actually improved the livingconditions for people that lived in those areas, and since they hadlittle money to spend, a market economy could not develop. Despite the inequalities, the division of labor between people incountries that produced raw materials and those that producedmanufactured goods increased the total volume of world trade. Inturn, this increased volume led to better technology, whichreinforced and fed the trade. Sea travel became much more efficient,with journeys that had once taken months or years reduced to days orweeks.By 1914 t wo great canals shortened sea journeys by thousandsof miles. The Suez Canal built by the British and French in the 1850slinked the Mediterranean Sea to the Red Sea, making it no longernecessary to go around the tip of Africa to get from Europe to Asiaby sea. The Panama Canal, completed in 1913, did a similar thing inthe western hemisphere, cutting a swath through Central America thatencouraged trade and transportation between the Atlantic and PacificOceans. DEMOGRAPHIC AND ENVIRONMENTALCHANGES The Industrial Revolution significantly changed populationpatterns, migrations, and environments.In industrialized nationspeople moved to the areas around factories to work there, citiesgrew, and as a result an overall migration from rural to urban areastook place. This movement was facilitated by the growth of railroadsand improvement of other forms of transportation. This era also sawmigrations on a large scale from Europe and Asia into the Americas,so that the overall population of the west ern hemisphere increased. However, this movement did not translate into a decrease ofpopulation in the eastern hemisphere.Particularly in Europe, theAgricultural Revolution improved nutrition, especially as the potato(transported from the New World in the previous era) became a maindiet staple for European peasants. THE END OF THE ATLANTIC SLAVE TRADE ANDSLAVERY Even as we may debate whether slavery and the slave trade cameabout because of racism or economic benefit, we may argue about whyboth ended during this era. From the beginning, as the Atlantic slavetrade enriched some Africans and many Europeans, it became a topic offierce debate in Europe, Africa, and the Americas in the late 18thcentury.The American and French revolutions stimulated thesediscussions, since both emphasized liberty, equality, and justice,topics that fed a strong abolitionist movement. Because most slaveswere not allowed to learn to read and write, most outspokenabolitionists were free whites in England and N orth America. However,Africans themselves took up the struggle to abolish slavery and theslave trade, rising in frequent slave revolts in the 18th and 19thcenturies that made slavery an expensive and dangerous business.Probably the most famous African spokespersons was Olaudah Equiano, awest African who published an autobiography in 1789 that recountedhis experiences as a slave in Africa and the New World. He latergained his freedom, learned to read and write, and became active inthe abolitionist movement. Many people read his works, heard himspeak, and were influenced to oppose slavery. Despite the importance of the abolitionist movement, economicforces also contributed to the end of slavery and the slave trade. Plantations and the slave labor that supported them remained in placeas long as they were profitable.In the Caribbean, a revolution, ledby Toussaint L'Ouverture resulted in the liberation of slaves inHaiti and the creation of the first black free state in the Americas. Howe ver, the revolution was so violent that it sparked fear amongplantation owners and colonial governments throughout the Caribbean. In the late 18th century, a rapid increase in Caribbean sugarproduction led to declining prices, and yet prices for slavesremained high and even increased. Even as plantations experiences these difficulties, profits fromthe emerging manufacturing industries were increasing, so investorsshifted their money to these new endeavors.Investors discovered thatwage labor in factories was cheaper than slave labor on plantationsbecause the owners were not responsible for food and shelter. Entrepreneurs began to see Africa as a place to get raw materials forindustry, not just slaves. THE END OF THE SLAVE TRADE Most European countries and the United States had abolished theslave trade before the mid-19th century: Britain in 1807, the UnitedStates in 1808, France in 1814, the Netherlands in 1817, and Spain in1845. Ardent abolitionists in Britain pressured the governme nt tosend patrol ships to the est coast of Africa to conduct search andseizure operations for ships that violated the ban. The lastdocumented ship that carried slaves on the Middle Passage arrived inCuba in 1867. THE END OF SLAVERY The institution of slavery continued in most places in theAmericas long after the slave trade was abolished, with the Britishabolishing slavery in their colonies in 1833. The French abolishedslavery in 1848, the same year that their last king was overthrown bya democratic government.The United States abolished slavery in 1865when the north won a bitter Civil War that had divided the southernslave-holding states from the northern non-slavery states. The lastcountry to abolish slavery in the Americas was Brazil, where theinstitution was weakened by a law that allowed slaves to fight in thearmy in exchange for freedom. Army leaders resisted demands that theycapture and return runaway slaves, and slavery was abolished in 1888,without a war. IMMIGRATION TO THE AMERICAS Various immigration patterns arose to replace the slave trade.Asian and European immigrants came to seek opportunities in theAmericas from Canada in the north to Argentina in the south. Somewere attracted to discoveries of gold and silver in western NorthAmerica and Canada, including many who made their way west from theeastern United States. However, European and Asian migrants whobecame workers in factories, railroad construction sites, andplantations outnumbered those who were gold prospectors. By the mid 19th century European migrants began crossing theAtlantic to fill the factories in the eastern United States.Increasing rents and indebtedness drove farmers from Ireland,Scotland, Germany and Scandinavia to North America, settling in theOhio and Mississippi River Valleys in search of land. The potatofamine forced many Irish peasants to make the journey, and politicalrevolutions caused many Germans to flee the wrath of the governmentwhen their causes failed. By the late 19th and early 20th centuries,most immigrants to North America were from southern and easternEurope, fleeing famine, poverty, and discrimination in theircountries of origin.While migrants to the United States came to fill jobs in thedeveloping industrial society, those who went to Latin America mostlyworked on agricultural plantations. About 4 million Italians came toArgentina in the 1880s and 1890s, and others went to Brazil, wherethe government paid the voyage over for Italian migrants who came towork on coffee plantations after slavery was abolished. Others camefrom Asia, with more than 15,000 indentured laborers from Chinaworking in sugarcane fields in Cuba during the 19th century. Chineseand Japanese laborers came to Peru where they worked on cottonplantations, in mines, and on railroad lines.THE DEMOGRAPHIC TRANSITION This era saw a basic change in the population structures ofindustrialized countries. Large families had always been welcome inagricultural societies because the more people a family had, the moreland they were able to work. Children's work was generally worth morethan it costs to take care of them. However, in the west, includingthe United States, the birth rate declined to historically low levelsin the 19th century. This demographic transition from high birthrates to low reflected the facts that child labor was being replacedby machines and that children were not as useful as they were inagricultural societies.Instead, as life styles changed in urbansettings, it became difficult to support large families, both interms of supporting them with salaries from industrial jobs and inhousing them in crowded conditions in the cities. High birth ratescontinued elsewhere in the world, so the west's percentage of totalworld population began to slip by 1900 even as its world powerpeaked. ENVIRONMENTAL CHANGES Wilderness areas in Europe were virtually gone by 1750, withalmost every piece of land used by farmers or townspeople. However,the process cont inued during this era, and deforestation became themost serious problem.Americans transformed their lands even morerapidly as people moved west, clearing forests for farms and thenmoving on when the soil was depleted. The cultivation of cotton wasespecially harmful. Planters cut down forests, grew cotton for a fewyears, moved west, and abandoned the land to scrub pines. Surprisingly, industrialization actually relieved environmentaldepletion in Britain because raw materials once grown on British soil&endash; like wool and grain – were replaced by coal and iron foundunderground. Iron replaced wood in many building structures,including ships, so that deforestation slowed.The most dramatic environmental changes in industrializedcountries occurred in the towns. Never before had towns grown sofast, and major cities formed. London grew from about 500,000inhabitants in 1700 to more than 2 million by 1850, with the largestpopulation a city had ever had in world history. Cities in the middleindustrial belt of Britain, such as Liverpool and Manchester grewrapidly during this period as well. New York City in the UnitedStates reached about 600,000 in 1850. CHANGES IN SOCIAL AND GENDERSTRUCTUREIndustrialization also transformed social and gender structures incountries where it developed, although it is not entirely clear as towhether the â€Å"gender gap† narrowed or widened. By and largeindustrialization widened the gap between the rich and the poor bycreating opportunities for businessmen to be far richer than theupper classes in an agricultural society ever could be. Although theywere free, not forced, laborers, the wages for factory workers werevery low, and many suffered as much if not more poverty than they hadas rural peasants. WORKING CONDITIONSIndustrialization offered new opportunities to people withimportant skills, such as carpentry, metallurgy, and machineoperations. Some enterprising people became engineers or opened theirown businesses, but for the vast majority of those who left theirfarming roots to find their fortunes in the cities, life was full ofdisappointments. Most industrial jobs were boring, repetitive, andpoorly paid. Workdays were long with few breaks, and workersperformed one simple task over and over with little sense ofaccomplishment. Unlike even the poorest farmer or craftsman, factoryworkers had no control over tools, jobs, or working hours.Factoryworkers could do very little about their predicament until the latterpart of the period, when labor unions formed and helped to provokethe moral conscience of some middle class people. Until then, workerswho dared to go on strike &endash; like the unmarried girls at theLowell mills in Massachusetts &endash; they were simply replaced byother workers from the abundant supply of labor. FAMILY LIFE Because machinery had to be placed in a large, centrally locatedplace, workers had to go to factories to perform their work, a majorchange in lifestyles from those of agr icultural societies.Inprevious days all family members did most of their work on the farm,which meant that the family stayed together most of the time. Division of labor meant that they did different types of work, mostlysplit by gender and age, but the endeavor was a collective one. Evenin the early days of commercialization, â€Å"piece work† was generallydone by people at home, and then delivered to the merchant orbusinessman. Now, people left their homes for hours at a time, oftenleaving very early and not returning till very late. Usually bothhusband and wife worked away from home, and for most of this period,so did children.Family life was never the same again. In the early days of industrialization, the main occupation ofworking women was domestic servitude. If they had small children,they usually tried to find work they could do at home, such aslaundry, sewing, or taking in lodgers. However, even with bothparents working, wages were so low that most families found itd ifficult to make ends meet. Most industrialists encouraged workersto bring their children along with them to the factories becausechildren usually could do the work, too, and they were quitecheap. CHANGES IN SOCIAL CLASSESA major social change brought about by the Industrial Revolutionwas the development of a relatively large middle class, or†bourgeoisie† in industrialized countries. This class had beengrowing in Europe since medieval days when wealth was based on land,and most people were peasants. With the advent of industrialization,wealth was increasingly based on money and success in businessenterprises, although the status of inherited titles of nobilitybased on land ownership remained in place. However, land had neverproduced such riches as did business enterprises of this era, and somembers of the bourgeoisie were the wealthiest people around.However, most members of the middle class were not wealthy, owningsmall businesses or serving as managers or administrator s in largebusinesses. They generally had comfortable lifestyles, and many wereconcerned with respectability, or the demonstration that they were ofa higher social class than factory workers were. They valued the hardwork, ambition, and individual responsibility that had led to theirown success, and many believed that the lower classes only hadthemselves to blame for their failures. This attitude generallyextended not to just the urban poor, but to people who still farmedin rural areas.The urban poor were often at the mercy of business cycles &endash;swings between economic hard times to recovery and growth. Factoryworkers were laid off from their jobs during hard times, making theirlives even more difficult. With this recurrent unemployment camepublic behaviors, such as drunkenness and fighting, that appalled themiddle class, who stressed sobriety, thrift, industriousness, andresponsibility. Social class distinctions were reinforced by Social Darwinism, aphilosophy by Englishman Her bert Spencer.He argued that humansociety operates by a system of natural selection, wherebyindividuals and ways of life automatically gravitate to their properstation. According to Social Darwinists, poverty was a â€Å"naturalcondition† for inferior individuals. GENDER ROLES AND INEQUALITY Changes in gender roles generally fell along class lines, withrelationships between men and women of the middle class being verydifferent from those in the lower classes. LOWER CLASS MEN AND WOMEN Factory workers often resisted the work discipline and pressuresimposed by their middle class bosses.They worked long hours inunfulfilling jobs, but their leisure time interests fed thepopularity of two sports: European soccer and American baseball. Theyalso did less respectable things, like socializing at bars and pubs,staging dog or chicken fights, and participating in other activitiesthat middle class men disdained. Meanwhile, most of their wives were working, most commonly asdomestic servants for middle class households, jobs that they usuallypreferred to factory work. Young women in rural areas often came tocities or suburban areas to work as house servants.They often sentsome of their wages home to support their families in the country,and some saved dowry money. Others saved to support ambitions tobecome clerks or secretaries, jobs increasingly filled by women, butsupervised by men. MIDDLE CLASS MEN AND WOMEN When production moved outside the home, men who became owners ormanagers of factories gained status. Industrial work kept the economymoving, and it was valued more than the domestic chores traditionallycarried out by women. Men's wages supported the families, since theyusually were the ones who made their comfortable life stylespossible.The work ethic of the middle class infiltrated leisure timeas well. Many were intent on self-improvement, reading books orattending lectures on business or culture. Many factory owners andmanagers stressed the importance of churc h attendance for all, hopingthat factory workers could be persuaded to adopt middle-class valuesof respectability. Middle class women generally did not work outside of the home,partly because men came to see stay-at-home wives as a symbol oftheir success. What followed was a â€Å"cult of domesticity† thatjustified removing women from the work place.Instead, they filledtheir lives with the care of children and the operation of theirhomes. Since most middle-class women had servants, they spent timesupervising them, but they also had to do fewer household choresthemselves. Historians disagree in their answers to the question of whether ornot gender inequality grew because of industrialization. Gender roleswere generally fixed in agricultural societies, and if the lives ofworking class people in industrial societies are examined, it isdifficult to see that any significant changes in the gender gap tookplace at all.However, middle class gender roles provide the realbasis for the argument. On the one hand, some argue that women wereforced out of many areas of meaningful work, isolated in their homesto obsess about issues of marginal importance. On the farm, theirwork was â€Å"women's work,† but they were an integral part of thecentral enterprise of their time: agriculture. Their work in raisingchildren was vital to the economy, but industrialization renderedchildren superfluous as well, whose only role was to grow up safelyenough to fill their adult gender-related duties.On the other hand,the â€Å"cult of domesticity† included a sort of idolizing of women thatmade them responsible for moral values and standards. Women were seenas stable and pure, the vision of what kept their men devoted to thetasks of running the economy. Women as standard-setters, then, becamethe important force in shaping children to value respectability, leadmoral lives, and be responsible for their own behaviors. Withoutwomen filling this important role, the entire socia l structure thatsupported industrialized power would collapse. And who could wish formore power than that?NEW POLITICAL IDEAS ANDMOVEMENTS In 1750 only England and the Netherlands had constitutionalmonarchies, governments that limited the powers of the king or ruler. All the other kingdoms of Europe, as well as the Muslim Empires andChina, practiced absolutism. Absolutist rulers benefited from thetendency for governments to centralize between 1450 and 1750 becauseit extended the power they had over their subjects. Most of therulers reinforced their powers by claiming special authority for thesupernatural, whether it be the mandate of heaven as practiced inChina, or divine right as European kings declared.Between 1750 and1914, absolute rulers almost everywhere lost power, and the rule oflaw became a much more important political principle. One of the most important political concepts to arise from the erawas the â€Å"nation-state,† a union often characterized by a commonlangu age, shared historical experiences and institutions, and similarcultural traditions, including religion at both the elite and popularlevels. As a result, political loyalties were no longer so determinedby one's attitudes toward a particular king or noble but by a moreabstract attachment to a â€Å"nation. FORCES FOR POLITICAL CHANGE As the Industrial Revolution began in England, the economicchanges were accompanied by demands for political changes that spreadto many other areas of the world by the end of the 19th century. Twoimportant forces behind the change were: †¢ The influence of the Enlightenment – The 1700s are sometimes referred to as the â€Å"Age of Enlightenment,† because philosophical and political ideas were begun to seriously question the assumptions of absolute governments.The Enlightenment began in Europe, and was a part of the changes associated with the Renaissance, the Scientific Revolution, and the Protestant Reformation, all taking place betw een 1450 and 1750. The Enlightenment invited people to use their â€Å"reason† using the same humanistic approach of Renaissance times. People can figure things out, and they can come up with better governments and societies. In the 1600s John Locke wrote that a ruler's authority is based on the will of the people. He also spoke of a social contract that gave subjects the right to overthrow the ruler if he ruled badly.French philosophes, such as Voltaire and Jean-Jacques Rousseau spread the new ideas to France, where they began uproar in a land that epitomized absolutism. †¢ New wealth of the bourgeoisie – Ongoing commercialization of the economy meant that the middle class grew in size and wealth, but not necessarily in political power. These self-made men questioned the idea that aristocrats alone should hold the highest political offices. Most could read and write, and found Enlightenment philosophy appealing in its questioning of absolute power. They sought po litical power to match the economic power that they had gained.REVOLUTIONS A combination of economic, intellectual, and social changesstarted a wave of revolutions in the late 1700s that continued intothe first half of the 19th century. The started in North America andFrance, and spread into other parts of Europe and to LatinAmerica. THE AMERICAN REVOLUTION Ironically, the first revolution inspired by the new politicalthought that originated in England began in the North Americancolonies and was directed at England. It began when Americancolonists resisted Britain's attempt to impose new taxes and tradecontrols on the colonies after the French and Indian War ended in1763.Many also resented Britain's attempts to control the movementwest. â€Å"Taxation without representation† turned British politicaltheory on its ear, but it became a major theme as the rebellionspread from Massachusetts throughout the rest of the colonies. Colonial leaders set up a new government and issued th e Declarationof Independence in 1776. The British sent forces to put the rebelliondown, but the fighting continued for several years until the newlycreated United States eventually won. The United States Constitutionthat followed was based on enlightenment principles, with threebranches of government that check and balance one another.Althoughinitially only a few had the right to vote and slavery was notabolished, the government became a model for revolutions to come. THE FRENCH REVOLUTION A very different situation existed in France. No establishednobility existed in the United States, so when independence wasachieved, the new nation had no old social and political structure tothrow off. In contrast, the Revolution in France was a civil war, arising against the Ancien Regime, or the old kingdom that had risenover centuries.The king, of course, had absolute power, but thenobility and clergy had many privileges that no one else had. Socialclasses were divided into three estates: firs t was the clergy, secondthe nobility, and the Third Estate was everyone else. On the eve ofthe Revolution in 1789, about 97% of the population of France wasthrown into the Third Estate, although they held only about 5% of theland. They also paid 100% of the taxes. Part of the problem was that the growing class of the bourgeoisiehad no political privileges.They read Enlightenment philosophes,they saw what happened in the American Revolution, and they resentedpaying all the taxes. Many saw the old political and social structureas out of date and the nobles as silly and vain, undeserving of theprivileges they had. The French Revolution began with King Louis XVI called theEstates-General, or the old parliamentary structure, together for thefirst time in 160 years. He did so only because the country was infinancial crisis brought on by too many wars for power and anextravagant court life at Versailles Palace.Many problems convergedto create the Revolution: the nobles' refusal to pay taxe s,bourgeoisie resentment of the king, Louis Vic's incompetence, and aseries of bad harvests for the peasants. The bourgeoisie seizedcontrol of the proceedings and declared the creation of the NationalAssembly, a legislative body that still exists in France today. Theywrote the Declaration of the Rights of Man and the Citizen, modeledafter the American Declaration of Independence, and they set about towrite a Constitution for France.The years after the revolution began were turbulent ones that sawthe king beheaded and the government taken over by the Jacobins, aradical group that sought equality through executing those thatdisagreed with the government. The Reign of Terror lasted for abouttwo years, with thousands of people guillotined and thousands morefleeing the country. The Jacobin leaders themselves were eventuallyguillotined; the country teetered for several years in disarray, andfinally was swept up by Napoleon Bonaparte as he claimed French gloryin battle. Democracy did not c ome easily in France. CONSERVATIVE REACTION TOREVOLUTIONNapoleon Bonaparte, of minor nobility from the island of Corsica,rose through the ranks of the French military during a time of chaos. He seized the French Government at a time when no one else couldcontrol it. He promised stability and conquest, and by 1812 theFrench Empire dominated Europe to the borders of Russia. His invasionof Russia was unsuccessful, done in by cold winters, long supplylines, and Tsar Alexander It's burn and retreat method that leftFrench armies without food. Finally, an alliance of Europeancountries led by Britain defeated Napoleon in 1815 at Waterloo inmodern day Belgium.Although Napoleon was defeated and exiled, othercountries were horrified by what had happened in France: arevolution, the beheading of a king, a terrorizing egalitariangovernment, and finally a demagogue who attacked all of Europe. Toconservative Europe, France was a problem that had to be containedbefore their ideas and actions spread to the rest of thecontinent. The allies that had defeated Napoleon met at Vienna in 1815 toreach a peace settlement that would make further revolutionsimpossible. The Congress of Vienna was controlled by therepresentatives of three nations: Britain, Austria, and Russia.Eachcountry wanted something different. The British wanted to destroy theFrench war machine, Russia wanted to establish an alliance based onChristianity, and Austria wanted a return to absolutism. They reachedan agreement based on restoring the balance of power in Europe, orthe principle that no one country should ever dominate the others. Rather, the power should be balanced among all the major countries. France actually came out rather well in the proceedings, due in largepart to the talents of their representative, Tallyrand.However, theCongress restricted France with these major decisions: †¢ Monarchies – including the monarchy in France – were restored in countries that Napoleon had conquered à ¢â‚¬ ¢ France was â€Å"ringed† with strong countries by its borders to keep its military in check. †¢ The Concert of Europe was formed, an organization of European states meant to maintain the balance of power. THE SPREAD OF REVOLUTION AND NEW POLITICALIDEAS No matter how the Congress of Vienna tried to stem the tide ofrevolution, it did not work in the long run.France was to wobbleback and forth between monarchy and republican government for thirtymore years, and then was ruled by Napoleon III (Bonaparte's nephew)until 1871, when finally a parliamentary government emerged. Andother countries in Europe, as well as colonies in Latin America, hadheard â€Å"the shot heard round the world,† and the true impact of therevolutionary political ideas began to be felt. REVOLUTIONS IN LATIN AMERICA From North America and France, revolutionary enthusiasm spreadthroughout the Caribbean and Spanish and Portuguese America.Incontrast to the leaders of the War for Independence f or the UnitedStates, most of the early revolutions in Latin America began withsubordinated Amerindians and blacks. Even before the FrenchRevolution, Andean Indians, led by Tupac Amaru, besieged the ancientcapital of Cuzco and nearly conquered the Spanish army. The Creoleelite responded by breaking the ties to Spain and Portugal, butestablishing governments under their control. Freedom, then, wasinterpreted to mean liberty for the property-owning classes. Only inthe French colony of Saint Domingue (Haiti) did slaves carry out asuccessful insurrection.The rebellion in 1791 led to several years of civil war in Haiti,even though French abolished slavery in 1793. When Napoleon came topower, he sent an army to tame the forces led by ToussaintL'Ouverture, a former slave. However, Napoleon's army was decimatedby guerrilla fighters and yellow fever, and even though Toussaintdied in a French jail, Haiti declared its independence in 1804. Other revolutions in Latin America were led by politica l andsocial elites, although some of them had important populistelements. †¢ Brazil – Portugal's royal family fled to Brazil when Napoleon's troops stormed the Iberian Peninsula.The presence of the royal family dampened revolutionary fervor, especially since the king instituted reforms in administration, agriculture, and manufacturing. He also established schools, hospitals, and a library. The king returned to Portugal in 1821, after Napoleon's threat was over, leaving Brazil in the hands of his son Pedro. Under pressure from Brazilian elites, Pedro declared Brazil's independence, and he signed a charter establishing a constitutional monarchy that lasted until the late 19th century when Pedro II was overthrown by republicans. Mexico – Father Miguel Hidalgo led Mexico's rebellion that eventually led to independence in 1821. He was a Catholic priest who sympathized with the plight of the Amerindian peasants and was executed for leading a rebellion against the coloni al government. The Creole elite then took up the drive for independence that was won under the leadership of Agustin de Iturbide, a conservative military commander. However, Father Hidalgo's cause greatly influenced Mexico's political atmosphere, as his populist ideas were taken up by others who led the people in revolt against the Creoles.Two famous populist leaders were Emiliano Zapata and Pancho Villa, who like Father Hidalgo were executed by the government. Mexico was not to work out this tension between elite and peasants until well into the 20th century. †¢ Spanish South America – Colonial elite – landholders, merchants, and military – also led Spanish colonies in South America in rebellion against Spain. The term â€Å"junta† came to be used for these local governments who wanted to overthrow colonial powers. Two junta centers in South America were: 1. Caracas, Venezuela – At first, laborers and slaves did not support this Creole-led ju nta.However, they were convinced to join the independence movement by Simon de Bolivar, a charismatic military leader with a vision of forging â€Å"Gran Columbia,† an independent, giant empire in the northern part of South America. He defeated the Spanish, but did not achieve his dream of empire. Instead, regional differences caused the newly independent lands to split into several countries. 2. Buenos Aires, Argentina – Another charismatic military leaders – Jose de San Martin – led armies for independence from the southern part of the continent.His combined Chilean/Argentine forces joined with Bolivar in Peru, where they helped the northern areas to defeat the Spanish. Martin's areas, like those led by Bolivar, also split along regional differences. All in all, constitutional experiments in North America were moresuccessful than those in South America. Though South Americans gainedindependence from colonial governments during the 19th century, theirgov ernments remained authoritarian and no effective legislatures werecreated to share the power with political leaders. Why thisdifference? COMPARATIVE CONSTITUTIONAL EXPERIMENTS ; NORTH AMERICA AND SOUTH AMERICA | |NORTH AMERICA |SOUTH AMERICA | |Mother country had parliamentary government, so colonial governments had a |Mother country governed by absolute monarch; colonial | |constitutional model |governments had authoritarian model | |Colonies had previous experience with popular politics; had their wn |Colonies had no experience with popular politics; | |governments that often operated independently from British control |colonial governments led by authoritarian Creoles | |Military leaders were popular and sometimes became Presidents (Washington, |Had difficulty subduing the power of military leaders;| |Jackson), but they did not try to take over the government as military |set in place the tradition of military juntas taking | |leaders; constitutional principle that military wou ld be subordinate to the|over governments | |government | | |American Revolution occurred in the 1770s; vulnerable new nation emerged at|Latin American Revolutions occurred during the early | |an economically advantageous time, when the world economy was expanding |1800s, a time when the world economy was contracting, | | |a less advantageous time for new nations | The differences in political backgrounds of the two continents ledto some very different consequences. For the United States (andeventually Canada), it meant that relatively democratic governmentsleft entrepreneurs open to the Industrial Revolution, which, afterall, started in their mother country. For Latin America, it meantthat their governments were less supportive and/or more removed fromthe economic transformations of the Industrial Revolutions, andstable democratic governments and economic prosperity would be a longtime in coming. IDEOLOGICAL CONSEQUENCES OFREVOLUTIONSThe Enlightenment philosophy that inspired rev olutions in theUnited States, France, and Latin America brought about lastingchanges in western political ideology, with some people reactingagainst the chaos that revolutions brought, and others inspired bythe values of democracy, liberty, equality, and justice. Threecontrasting ideologies may be seen by the early 1800s: †¢ Conservatism – People who supported this philosophy at first advocated return to absolute monarchy, but came to accept constitutional monarchy by the mid-1800s. Generally, conservatives disapproved of the revolutions of the era, particularly the French Revolution with all the violence and chaos that it brought. †¢ Liberalism – Liberals supported a republican democracy, or a government with an elected legislature who represented the people in political decision-making.These representatives were generally from the elite, but were selected (usually by vote) from a popular base of citizens. Emphasis was generally on liberty or freedom from op pression, rather than on equality. †¢ Radicalism – Radicals advocated drastic changes in government and emphasized equality more than liberty. Their philosophies varied, but they were most concerned with narrowing the gap between elites and the general population. The Jacobins during the French Revolution, and Marxism that appeared in the mid 19th century were variations of this ideological family. REFORM MOVEMENTS The political values supported by revolutions were embraced bysome who saw them as applying to all people, including women andformer slaves.Values of liberty, equality, and democracy hadprofound implications for change within societies that had alwaysaccepted hierarchical social classes and gender roles. Reformmovements sprouted up as different people put differentinterpretations on what these new political and social valuesactually meant. Women's Rights Advocates of women's rights were particularly active in Britain,France, and North America. Mary Wollstonecr aft, an English writer,was one of the first to argue that women possessed all the rightsthat Locke had granted to men, including education and participationin political life. Many French women assumed that they would begranted equal rights after the revolution. However, it did not bringthe right to vote or play major roles in public affairs.Since genderroles did not change in the immediate aftermath of revolution, socialreformers pressed for women's rights in North America and Europe. Americans like Elizabeth Cady Stanton and Susan B. Anthony in theUnited States decided to concentrate their efforts on suffrage, orthe right to vote. A resolution passed at Seneca Falls, New York, in1848, emphasized women's rights to suffrage, as well as to education,professional occupations, and political office. Their movement didnot receive popular support, however, until the 20th century, buttheir activism laid a foundation for large-scale social changelater. The Limits of the Abolitionist Movement Although slavery was abolished in Europe and North America by thelate 19th century, blacks did not realize equality within the timeperiod. Although former slaves were guaranteed the right to vote inthe late 1860s in the United States, they were effectively barredfrom political participation by state and local legislation calledJim Crow laws. Blacks all over the Americas tended to have the leastdesirable jobs, limited educational opportunities, and lower socialstatus than whites. Conservative Reactions to Reform During the late 1800s two systems of related political thoughtemerged among conservatives to justify inequalities: †¢ Scientific racism – This idea system became popular among conservative thinkers in industrialized societies.It used scientific reasoning and evidence to prove its premise that blacks are physiologically and mentally inferior to whites. The theory generally constructed three main â€Å"races† in the world – Caucasian, Mongoloid, and Ne groid ; and built its arguments that basic differences existed among them that made Negroids inherently inferior to Caucasians. Scientific racism, then, justified the inferior positions that blacks had in the society and the economy. †¢ Social Darwinism – This philosophy justified not racial differences, but differences between the rich and the poor. It used Darwin's theory of natural selection (living things that are better adapted to the environment survive, others don't) to explain why some get rich and others remain poor.In the competition for favored positions and bigger shares of wealth, the strong, intelligent, and motivated naturally defeat the weak, less intelligent, and the lazy. So, people who get to the top deserve it, as do the people who remain at the bottom Marxism Another reaction to the revolution in political thought wasMarxism, The father of communism is generally acknowledged to be KarlMarx, who first wrote about his interpretation of history and visi onfor the future in The Communist Manifesto in 1848. He saw capitalism; or the free market ; as an economic system thatexploited workers and increased the gap between the rich and thepoor.He believed that conditions in capitalist countries wouldeventually become so bad that workers would join together in aRevolution of the Proletariat (workers), and overcome thebourgeoisie, or owners of factories and other means of production. Marx envisioned a new world after the revolution, one in which socialclass would disappear because ownership of private property would bebanned. According to Marx, communism encourages equality andcooperation, and without property to encourage greed and strife,governments would be unnecessary. His theories took root in Europe,but never became the philosophy behind European governments, but iteventually took new forms in early 20th century Russia and China. NATIONALISMIn older forms of political organizations, the glue of politicalunity came from the ruler, whe ther it is a king, emperor, sultan, orcaliph. Political power generally was built on military might, and aruler controlled the land that he conquered as long as he controlledit. Power was often passed down within one family that based thelegitimacy of their rule on principles that held sway over theirpopulations, often some kind of special contact with the spiritualworld. The era 1750 to 1914 saw the creation of a new type ofpolitical organization – the nation – that survived even if therulers failed. Whereas nations' political boundaries were still oftendecided by military victory, the political entity was much broaderthan control by one person or family.Nations were built onnationalism – the feeling of identity within a common group ofpeople. Of course, these feelings were not new in the history of theworld. However, the force of common identity became a basic buildingblock for nations, political forms that still dominate world politicstoday. Nationalism could be based on common geographical locations,language, religion, or customs, but it is much more complex thanthat. The main idea is that people see themselves as â€Å"Americans† or†Italians† or â€Å"Japanese,† despite the fact that significant culturalvariations may exist within the nation. Napoleon contributed a great deal to the development of strongnationalism in 19th century Europe.His conquests were done in thename of â€Å"France,† even though the French monarchy had been deposed. The more he conquered, the more pride people had in being â€Å"French. â€Å"He also stirred up feelings of nationalism within a people that heconquered: â€Å"Germans† that could not abide being taken over by theFrench. In Napoleon's day Germany did not exist as a country yet, butpeople still thought of themselves as being German. Instead Germanslived in a political entity known as â€Å"The Holy Roman Empire. â€Å"However, the nationalism that Napoleon invoked became the basis forfurther revolutions, in which people around the world sought todetermine their own sovereignty, a principle that Woodrow Wilsoncalled self-determination. RISE OF WESTERN DOMINANCEA combination of economic and political transformations in Europethat began in the 1450 to 1750 era converged between 1750 and 1914 toallow the â€Å"west† (including the United States and Australia) todominate the rest of the world. From China to the Muslim states toAfrica, virtually all other parts of the world became the â€Å"have nots†to the west's â€Å"haves. † With political and economic dominance camecontrol in cultural and artistic areas as well. NEW EUROPEAN NATIONS A major political development inspired by growing nationalism wasthe consolidation of small states into two important new nations: †¢ Italy – Before the second half of the 19th century, Italy was a collection of city-states that were only loosely allied with one another. A u nification movement was begun in the north by Camillo di Cavour, and in the north by Giuseppe Garibaldi.As states unified one by one, the two leaders joined, and Italy became a unified nation under King Vittore Emmanuele II. The movement was a successful attempt to escape the historical domination of the peninsula by Spain in the south and Austria in the north. †¢ Germany – The German Confederation was created by the Congress of Vienna in 1815, but it had been controlled by the Austrian and Prussian Empires. In 1848 major rebellions broke out within the confederation, inspired by liberals who envisioned a German nation ruled by parliamentary government. The revolutions failed, and many liberals fled the country, but they proved to be an excuse for the Prussian army to invade other parts of the Confederation.The Prussian military leader was Otto von Bismarck, who subjugated the rebels and declared the beginning of the German Empire. The government was a constitutional mon archy, with Kaiser Wilhelm I ruling, but for a number of years, Bismarck had control. He provoked three wars &endash; with Denmark, Austria, and France &endash; and appealed to German nationalism to create a strong new nation in the heart of Europe. He pronounced it the â€Å"2nd Reich† or ruling era (the 1st was the Holy Roman Empire and the 3rd was set up by Adolph Hitler in the 20th century). These new nations altered the balance of power in Europe, causingestablished nations like Britain and France concern that their ownpower was in danger.Nationalism, then, was spurred on by a renewalof

Define concepts Essay Example | Topics and Well Written Essays - 750 words

Define concepts - Essay Example Social Justice: Social justice is a concept that recommends equal rights for all human beings, regardless of their religion, race, or social standing. It advocates human rights for minorities, international justice, and prevention of crimes against humanity. Social justice is considered a goal for humanity, a state of existence that would guarantee that each human being values the other’s dignity, and that each human life is actively treated as equal. The ideal situation required by social justice is where the basic needs of each and every person on earth are well-fulfilled. Social Contract: Social contract is a contract that specifies the terms on which people, before the origin of society and politics, decided to come together to form a society and to submit to political authority.The theory of social contract is a significant part of political theory that serves as a quasi-fictional explanation of the existence of modern societies and their norms. Though it is difficult to disprove that humans have evolved as a social group, and were never in a state of individual non-co-operative existence, the social contract is a useful ideological tool in the field of political theory. Social Constructionism: Social constructionism involves the examination of society with a view to interpreting the evolution of its traditions, ways of thought, beliefs and practices. What is taken as natural and taken for granted by members of a particular society have a human origin. The adherents of social constructionism believe that some known social realities as we know them today, for example the distinctions between genders, homosexuality and heterosexuality, are in fact constructs manufactured by the society at some point of time in history. Multiple Identity: In our modern society of international immigration and global citizenship, the identity of a human being can be differently defined than it was before. Multiple identities come into the picture when a

Answer the questions Essay Example | Topics and Well Written Essays - 750 words - 7

Answer the questions - Essay Example Visibility, on the other hand, ensures that a principal maintains a quality contact with both teachers and students and that he is ready to receive opinions from the two parties (OCM Boces, 2013). To lead a school to the type of performance that would guarantee success for the school, I plan to use my skills together with the responsibilities bestowed on me by all stakeholders. Personal skills such as visibility, intellectual stimulation and strong ideals and beliefs should be coupled with the self-drive to undertake the responsibilities of a school leader. Among the most critical responsibilities are recognizing and celebrating accomplishments which acknowledging failures, being a change agent, establishing strong lines of communications, as well as overseeing the development of an institutional culture (OCM Boces, 2013). To guarantee success, I will further require to get directly involved in the formulation and implementation of curriculums and other instruction materials. Ability to establish productive relationships with staff members coupled with accountability in the allocation of resources within the school will further ensure that I am in a pole position to achieve t he schools set goals. One of the principles of school leadership that I learnt during my principal preparation and which I believe will be important to my successful leadership is the importance of establishing a student-centered leadership (Cunningham & Cordeiro, 2006). By doing so, all the resources and energy within the school are geared towards improving the educational outcomes of students. I believe that all successful leaders share several characteristics that make them stand out. Among these characteristics are setting direction, establishing relationships and growing people, developing an institution such that it is geared towards supporting desired practices, overseeing a gradual improvement of an institutions program to match set goals as well as ensuring

Dell Computers Inc Essay Example | Topics and Well Written Essays - 2000 words

Dell Computers Inc - Essay Example onal costs of intermediaries between the company and consumer and thus reducing the overall cost of the PCs making it cheaper than other PCs in the market. The other advantage was that it reduces the costs and risks associated with carrying large stocks of parts, components and finished goods (Thompson and Gamble, 2006). The company later became a public limited company and raised $34.2 million in its first offering of common stock and achieved sales of $388 million in 1990. During 1986 to 1993, Dell refined strategy, build an adequate infrastructure and established market credibility against better known rivals like IBM and Hewlett Packard. Dells computer strategy clicked into full gear in the late 1990s and the sell direct strategy provided the company with most efficient procurement, manufacturing and distribution capabilities in the global PC industry and gave a substantial profit margin advantage over rival PC vendors. It is further stated that Dell’s operating cost ran a bout 10 percent of revenues in 2002 as compared to 21 percent of revenues at Hewlett Packard, 25 percent at Gateway, and 46 percent at Cisco Systems (Thompson and Gamble, 2008). Dell Inc was the undisputed leader in the United States for sales in personal computer dominating the market. In 1998, the market share of Dell was 13.2% as compared to Hewlett Packard’s 7.8%. However it should be noted that Compaq was ahead of Dell during 1998 with 16.7%. This was the only period when any other vendors were ahead of Dell as the company occupied top position in 2000 with 19.7% as compared to Compaq’s 15.9% and HP’s 11.5%. The table below shows that Dell Inc has been ranked first since 2003 showing its dominance in the market for personal computer since 2000 in comparison to other companies. But, according to table 2, Hewlett Packard dominates the world market with 18.8% in the year 2007 as compared to 14.9% of Dell Inc. Though Dell Inc was dominated the market in United States and all over the world throughout 2000s, Dell Inc’s market share fell down from 16.6% in 2006 to 14.9% in 2007 whereas Hewlett Packard’s market share increased from 16.5% in 2006 to 18.8% in 2007 thus becoming the market leader in the industry. Table 1: U.S. Market Share of the Leading PC Vendors, 1998-2007 2003 Rank Vendor 2007 2006 2005 2004 2002 2000 1998 Shipments (in 000s) Market Share Shipments (in 000s) Market Share Shipments (in 000s) Market Share Shipments (in 000s) Market Share Shipments (in 000s) Market Share Shipments (in 000s) Market Share Shipments (in 000s) Market Share 1 Dell 19645 28% 20472 31.2% 21466 33.6% 19296 33.7% 13324 27.9% 9645 19.7% 4799 13.2% 2 HP 16759 23.9 11600 21.5 12456 19.5 11600 20.3 8052 16.8 5630 11.5 2832 7.8 3 Compaq - - - - - - - - - - 7761 15.9 6052 16.7 Source: Thompson and Gamble (2008) Table 2: Worldwide Market Shares of the Leading PCs, 1998-2007 2003

Gay Relationships - Same or Different Essay Example | Topics and Well Written Essays - 1000 words

Gay Relationships - Same or Different - Essay Example The paper explains why and how this is so, culling insights from Cloud's own seven-plus years in a failed relationship with his ex-mate Michael. In essence Cloud is saying that gay relationships are marked by a different set of dynamics owing to the following: the fact that both parties to the couple are the same sex; that homosexuals growing up often face stigmatization and experience a sense of being repressed in early life, and those color how they act in adult homosexual relationships, among other things; and that, to a certain extent, the very nature of gay relationships have within them the seeds of their own demise. The latter is a controversial assertion, but borne out by facts Cloud cites a study that found that gay couples were more likely to break up over a 12-year period than straight couples (Cloud). That said, this paper asserts that beyond distinctions of couple relationships based on gender, the universal themes that are reflected in the Aristophanes myth hold. The in tensity of emotions and focus that Cloud displays in his essay reflects just how gripping and central, and painful, the experience of breaking up and losing one's other half is. Also, the way Cloud's relationship seemed to have disintegrated, and followed the seven-year pattern of many couples, indicates a kind of fated end that meets all those who seek and lose. Cloud is playing out the part that is his, in a dance with his partner that is fated to end, and beyond anyone's control to do something about, least of all the lovers themselves. As the author notes, with resignation (Cloud): And yet if ours had been a straight marriage, I have little doubt we would still be together. We had financial security and supportive families. We almost certainly would have had children. This isn't regret--fighting my homosexuality would be like shouting against the rain (Cloud). Discussion Cloud sets forth to define what it was that he wanted to find out and discuss in the essay, in a set of quest ions that haunted him in those early mornings after the breakup, and when he was done with his frantic going about to fill his time after that. Here we see that even Cloud could not figure out at that point what it was that happened exactly, a hint of the fated nature of the end, as if he and Michael were merely acting out parts in a script (Cloud): What impact had our homosexuality had on the longevity, arc and dissolution of our relationship? Had we given up on each other because we were men or because we were gay? Or neither? Friends offered cliches: Some people just aren't meant for each other. But our straight friends usually stayed married. Why not us? (Cloud) Cloud answers those questions in the affirmative, mainly, and that just as he could not change his sexual orientation, so too he could not change the manner in which his relationship with Michael played out and died. The seeds of that relationship and its destruction lay in themselves, and the way they are built sexually , as gays. Yet Cloud also points out that his experience in a relationship is in many ways similar to the experience of other people in relationships, regardless of sex. Underneath it all, there is the universal dictate to find someone to love and stay with. There is the sense that Cloud wanted this permanent relationship, the complete bonding with one's significant other. There is some wishful thinking in the following lines, as well as a sense of resignation regarding the fate that befalls man, who seems

Based on Article Called Risks of hands-free driving Essay

Based on Article Called Risks of hands-free driving - Essay Example The article was authored by the editorial board and published in The New York Times on May 28 this year. The authors indicate that the car manufacturers are striving to save lives of travelers by developing automated packaging in cars that enable free driving without the necessity of applying effort with the hands. For instance, some cars could maintain a safe distance to the cars in front without the driver’s help and this technology is applied by companies such as the Mercedes-Benz and General Motors (The Editorial Board 1). The authors, however, argue that, although the manufactures intent to install the new feature in the cars to enhance safety, it could increase distraction while driving leading to accidents. The article has pointed out some premises to their argument indicating that the drivers could be tempted to keep throwing their eyes off the road into other concentrations such as texting and they would not be able to manage the cars in case of unexpected occurrences leading to accidents (The Editorial Board 1). Following this, the belief that the new technology is safer turns out to cause accidents that could otherwise be avoided with driver’s complete concentration on the road. Distractions are common on the roads even where there are no new technologies. This affirmed in the study facilitated by the AT and T which revealed that 61 percent person confessed text while driving and 33 and 27 percent admitted they use email and Facebook respectively while on the roads (The Editorial Board 1). These are major distractions and have a strong connection to the traffic accidents. In fact, the national administration of highway traffic safety indicates that 16 percent of the total nu mber of traffic accidents reported in 2013 to the police was as a result of distractions. Other statistics developed by a nonprofit organization, National Safety Council, estimated that about 27 percent of all accidents in 2013 were due to people

FedEx Assignment Example | Topics and Well Written Essays - 500 words

FedEx - Assignment Example This means that the company hopes to gather the greatest amount of market share and become the market leader within the industry. For this, the company has kept up three pillars and those pillars are as follows: The company wishes to bring sustainable growth to its earnings. The company kept a target of maintaining a 10% plus operating margin and an increase in the earnings per share from 10% to 15%. This result was achieved by the company as it achieved a 13% increase in its revenue and 20% increase in its earnings per share. Secondly, the company focused on improving its ethical stance towards the global market and the environment in which it operates and this was practically showed by the company when it donated $5 million in disaster relief work within Japan Finally, the company focused on improving its reputation within the global market and was able to enhance its image successfully. This had been reflected and reported in the Fortune’s magazine when Fedex became a part of 10 most admired companies (Annual Report,

Valuing cultural diversityfeeling respected as a way of managing Essay

Valuing cultural diversityfeeling respected as a way of managing diversity is tapping diversitys true benefits and HRM role to support managing cultural dive - Essay Example ept of integration-and-learning perspective, cultural diversity in terms of the access-and-legitimacy perspective and discrimination-and-fairness perspective, and integration-and-learning perspective will be identified and analysed. There are many ways in which cultural diversity at work can be strengthened. One of the major factors that causes problem in managing diversity is the behaviours of people within the working environment. (Henderson 1994, p. 133) Therefore, making employees feel respected has been considered as one of the best ways in promoting cultural diversity within the working environment. In the process of examining the truth behind this statement, the student will conduct a literature review on how the application of integration-and-learning perspective could enhance organizational learning, growth, and renewal. Prior to conclusion, the role of HRM in support of cultural diversity (under the integration-and-learning perspective) in the workplace will be thoroughly discussed. Organizational culture is actually referring to a set of norms, beliefs, principles and behaviour that gives the organization a unique character. (Naylor 1997, p. 1; Brown, 1995) In the case of David (1999, p. 143), the author defines organizational culture as â€Å"a pattern of behaviour developed by an organization to cope with problems related to external adaptation and internal integration aside from enabling the employees to feel and think positively.† The word ‘diversity’ means as â€Å"to include a variety of racial or ethical backgrounds and characteristics of humankind.† (College of the Mainland 2008) Considering the definition of diversity, the study of cultural diversity is focused on acknowledging one or more socio-demograhic traits like gender, race, ethnicity, and age (Janssens & Zanoni 2005). In other words, cultural diversity at work – also known as multiculturalism is about integrating culture in terms of employees’ age, gender, mental or physical

Business Management Essay Example | Topics and Well Written Essays - 1750 words

Business Management - Essay Example The discount products of large retailers like ASDA and Wal-Mart’s etc are also alluring this segment. The competition is growing along with the growth of various consumer segments. The intensified competition also puts a pressure on the players to offer the customers from every window to sale or market their products and services. The paper covers literature review of the Retail Clothing Sector. The organisation studied for this purpose is asos.com. Various factors of the growing online fashion retailing have been covered in this study. Retailing sector particularly Fashion retailing has attracted attention of various researchers and scholars. Studies have covered various aspects of retailing from organisation structures to advent of technology within this sector and its impact on overall industry. Davies 1993; McGoldrick 1990 state (as cited in Gillooley and Varley, 2001 pg. 7) According to Gillooley and Varley (2001 pg.7-20) emphasis is on the role of technology, technologist in clothing industry and distribution system. They feel that the dominance of manufacturers brands and the emphasis on product/price promotions is higher in retail clothing industry as compared to food or other retailing. Retailers are often classified on the basis of amount of service they offer, depth and breadth of the products and services, relative price changes and their organisation structure Retailer may offer self, limited or full service to the customer. Based on category these can be classified as Specialty stores, Department stores, Supermarket, Convenience stores, Superstores and category killers. The latest concept is online retailing or e-tailing that has replaced the need of personal visit, bricks and mortar to a certain extent. Due to the increase in the number of Internet users the traffic towards online marketing is increasing. This is due to two major factors. One that consumer wants conveniences in terms of effort, money spend and quality assurance and the